Tag Archive for: DSCR

DSCR Loans and Multiplexes

Categories:

DSCR Loans and Multiplexes

Over the last 6 months DSCR has really been taking off! Today we are going to talk about DSCR loans and multiplexes. As rates continue to come back down, it will increase the cash flow for properties. This is why many investors are coming back to DSCR loans. It is an excellent product for real estate investors to use for their next multiplex property!

Can you get a DSCR loan for more than 4 units?

Typically there is a lending box that you fit into when you own a 1 to 4 unit. As a result, those who have 1 to 4 units have a lot of loan options available. We have had a lot of questions regarding lending options for properties that are not in that range. Anything over 5 units is considered a commercial property. Here at The Cash Flow Company we are working with a few investors who have an 8 plex, 12 plex, and even a 24 plex. For these customers, there are DSCR options, however they are considered commercial loans. Commercial loans are just a little bit different, but there are more options available now then there were in the past.  

There is something for everyone!

DSCR loans have a lot of options available to fit your investment needs. Whether or not you have a break even property, or one that is struggling to cash flow, there is something for everyone. DSCR is becoming more of a mainstream option for investors. What types of properties are growing in DSCR popularity? The answer is commercial, 5 units, rural properties and many others. These properties no longer have to fit in the lending box. DSCR is opening the doors to endless possibilities. Do you have a unique rental property and are looking for more lending options? If so, contact us today to find out more about DSCR loans and how you can get under the DSCR umbrella! 

To find out more about DSCR loans and calculate your DSCR ratio contact us today!

Watch our most recent video about DSCR Loans and Multiplexes to find out more!

by

DSCR Loan: How to Qualify for The Maximum Loan Amount

Many investors wonder how they can qualify for the maximum loan amount when using a BRRRR strategy or DSCR loan. When you are looking at a DSCR, there are two different qualifiers that you need to keep in mind. This includes the break even point and the LTV for the property. Whether you are using the DSCR loan for a BRRRR, refinance, or a purchase, it is important that you look at the qualifiers first. 

How much money can you get when using a DSCR loan?

The guidelines say that on a DSCR loan you can get 80% for a purchase or 75% to 80% for a refinance. Just to clarify, that means that you can get 75% to 80% of the current appraised value. While the DSCR guidelines say that you can receive that percentage, we always advise customers to hold off. We recommend that they wait because there are additional underwriting guidelines that need to be taken into consideration.One of which is a concern as to whether or not the property will qualify for 75%. Remember, DSCR loans are based on a ratio that indicates where the property breaks even. What does break even mean? Breaking even is determined by comparing the money coming into the property to the expenses. The expenses include the principal, interest, taxes, HOA, and flood. 

Each property is unique and each situation is unique.

A property appraised for $400K and the customer wants 75% cash out or rate and term. If their credit is good, property is good, and it is rented, then they could get 75%. However, we also have to determine whether or not the property breaks even. While it is appraised for $400K, is it bringing in $3K or $2K a month in rent? This amount can vary greatly depending on where the property is located and the current market. Each property is unique and each situation is different. Not only will the rents be different, but the taxes and insurance will be different as well. It is imperative that you run the numbers and find the DSCR ratio prior to purchasing. Now just imagine that the taxes and insurance are the same, but the rents are $1K off. The $2K rent is going to qualify for a smaller loan amount. 

Break even point and LTV go hand in hand.

Each property is different on where it can break even and the LTV you can get on the property. Even if the guidelines say 75% to 80%, we have to take into account the rents, credit score, and rate. The higher the rates, the higher the payment, and the faster you hit the threshold where you break even. When comparing a $300K property to a $200K property, maybe the $300K property gets 75% because their DSCR ratio is above 1. This is because the property is either breaking even or greater. However, the $200K would only get $250K because the property breaks even at that loan amount. Just to clarify, the $50K difference is not impacted by the customer’s credit score. It is dependent on the break even point.

Maximize your loan amount today!

In order to maximize your loan amount you need to understand your numbers beforehand! Whether or not you are purchasing, refinancing, or using the BRRRR strategy, you need to know what loan amounts will be available to you. For those using the BRRRR strategy, knowing your numbers ahead of time is going to be the key to your success. If you are using a DSCR, you need to make sure that the property qualifies based on rents so that you can refinance in the future. Don’t run the risk of being $50K short! Always keep in mind that each property is unique and every situation is different. Watch for our next video as we walk through the numbers to show different scenarios that will affect your maximum loan amount.

Do you have a property that you would like to run the numbers on? Contact us today to see what your DSCR ratio would be for your next property. 

Watch our most recent video to find out more about DSCR Loan: How to Qualify for The Maximum Loan Amount.

by

DSCR and BRRRR: The importance of refinancing

Today we are going to talk about the importance of refinancing when using a DSCR loan and BRRRR strategy.  Here at The Cash Flow Company we are averaging 10 to 15 calls a day regarding the fundamentals. This includes knowing where to start, what you need to do, and how to be successful. In order to be successful, it is imperative that you go over the numbers first to make sure that you are getting into a good property. In doing so, investors can then determine if the property is a profitable investment. 

What is the BRRRR strategy?

What exactly is BRRRR? BRRRR stands for buy, repair, rent, refinance, and repeat. The main purpose of BRRRR is to get into properties using little to no money out of your pocket. Those who use this strategy correctly will be able to accumulate “value at” properties quickly and create a portfolio. Just to clarify, “value at” properties are those that are under market value and need work done. These are often hoarder houses, in need of yard cleanup, and ones that need maintenance or repairs. Whether the current owners were unable or unwilling to fix up the property, it creates the perfect opportunity for investors. By taking the time to fix up the properties, you will in turn create net worth for the property.

Two loans, one goal!

With BRRRR you need one loan for the purchase and repair, plus a long term loan for the refinance. The short term loans are often a hard money loan or a private loan ranging from 10% to 12% interest rates. It is important to keep in mind that these loans are only temporary, lasting 6 to 12 months. After that time, the loan balloons. That is why it is so important to have a long term loan option available when using the BRRRR strategy. Many investors use a DSCR loan for their long term loan because it is based solely on the property and their credit score. One thing to keep in mind is that the LTV is different for each person and for each property. In the end you need to determine if your expenses equal your income prior to purchasing the property. Unfortunately,  many people do not do the research up front or run through the numbers before making the purchase. Don’t wait until the refinance! Take a look ahead to make sure that the property you want to buy will be able to cash flow later on. 

Look ahead to ensure success.

One of the most important pieces of the BRRRR strategy is refinance. A refinance is needed so that you can carry the loan long term. While buying the right property is important, it is crucial that you look ahead and understand the importance of refinancing. Oftentimes investors get to the refinance and either can’t get a loan or they can’t get enough money to cover their costs. In either case, it would defeat the purpose of using the BRRRR strategy. By doing the research up front and making sure that the whole thing works, you will actually make money. A lot of people don’t take the time to work through the numbers. Instead they discover during the refinance closing that they are going to lose money.

What is a DSCR loan and how can it work with BRRRR?

A DSCR loan is based solely on the property and your credit score. If the property’s income or rents are not very high, then you’re not going to get that big of a loan. The lenders will decrease the LTV until the break even point or sometimes higher. In the end, the lenders need the income and the expenses to be the same. This is referred to as the DSCR ratio. Just to clarify, expenses include the monthly payments, taxes, insurance, HOA, and flood insurance. One thing to keep in mind is that the LTV is different for each person and for each property. In the end you need to determine if your expenses equal your income prior to purchasing the property. 

For example:

An investor is using a DSCR and buys something where the purchase, rehab, and everything puts them at 80%. However, the property itself only qualifies for 70% because of its break even point. While many think that they are good because they bought it and are into it for 75% to 80%, this is not always true. When it comes to refinancing the property, lenders can only do 70% to 75%. It is confusing and often daunting because there are so many moving parts. However, by laying it out and making sure that the property cash flows, you will be successful.

We are here to help!

Here at The Cash Flow Company, we are happy to run through the numbers with you to make sure that you are setting yourself up for success. That would include checking your rents, taxes, insurance, and LTV to make sure that you would qualify for a long term loan when you go to refinance. Don’t chance being surprised at the refinance closing! Take the time now to run through the numbers and ensure your success for the future! 

Contact us today to see if a DSCR loan and the BRRRR strategy are right for you!

Watch our most recent video to learn more about DSCR and BRRRR: The importance of refinancing.

by

DSCR Loans: Top 3 Questions Everyone Is Asking

DSCR has really been taking off in the last 6 months! Today we are going to talk about the top 3 DSCR loan questions everyone is asking. As rates continue to come back down and properties start to cash flow again, many investors are coming back to DSCR. It is an excellent product for real estate investors to use for their next property!

First, can you get a DSCR loan for more than 4 units?

Typically there is a lending box that you fit into when you own a 1 to 4 unit. As a result, those who have 1 to 4 units have a lot of loan options available. We have had a lot of questions regarding lending options for properties that are not in that range. Anything over 5 units is considered a commercial property. Here at The Cash Flow Company we are working with a few investors who have an 8 plex, 12 plex, and even a 24 plex. For these customers, there are DSCR options, however they are considered commercial loans. Commercial loans are just a little bit different, but there are more options available now then there were in the past.  

Second, what kind of documents do you need when you are applying for a DSCR loan?

If you are doing a refinance, you will need:

  1. Lease agreement – What are you leasing?
  2. Business setup – What is the operating agreement and who runs the company?
  3. Reserves – You need a couple months of bank statements that show 2-3 months of reserves.
  4. Taxes – Needed for DSCR ratio.
  5. Insurance: Needed for DSCR ratio.
  6. HOA – Needed for DSCR ratio.
  7. Flood – Needed for DSCR ratio.
  8. Title 
  9. Appraisal – An appraisal will show the value of the property.

Once you have the appraisal and everything you need for the DSCR, it normally takes 2 to 3 weeks before everything is finalized.

Third, what happens if the property doesn’t break even?

The DSCR ratio is what everything is based on. The DSCR ratio is the breakeven point where the rents equal the expenses on that property. Just to clarify, expenses include your payments (principle and interest), taxes, insurance, HOA, and flood insurance. When the rents are equal to the expenses, there is a DSCR ratio of 1. If the property is not cash flowing, then the DSCR ratio will be less than 1. While there are still options available for investors whose ratio is less than 1, it is often at a higher interest rate and lower LTV. There are options for no income as well that will go down to 75%, while other lenders might not even check income. 

There is something for everyone!

DSCR loans have a lot of options available to fit your investment needs. Whether or not you have a break even property, or one that is struggling to cash flow, there is something for everyone. DSCR is becoming more of a mainstream option for investors. What types of properties are growing in DSCR popularity? The answer is commercial, 5 units, rural properties and many others. These properties no longer have to fit in the lending box. DSCR is opening the doors to endless possibilities. Do you have a unique rental property and are looking for more lending options? If so, contact us today to find out more about DSCR loans and how you can get under the DSCR umbrella! 

To find out more about DSCR loans and calculate your DSCR ratio contact us today!

Watch our most recent video DSCR Loans: Top 3 Questions Everyone Is Asking to find out more!

by

DSCR Loans and BRRRR Properties – Fundamentals Explained

Today we are going to talk about DSCR loans and explain the fundamentals that you need to keep in mind when working with BRRRR properties. Here at The Cash Flow Company we are averaging 10 to 15 calls a day regarding the fundamentals. What are the fundamentals? They include knowing where to start, what you need to do, and how to be successful. In order to be successful, it is imperative that you go over the numbers first to make sure that you are getting into a good property. Investors need to determine whether or not the property is cash flowing before diving in. How can you be successful and create a profitable investment? Let’s take a closer look.

What is the BRRRR strategy?

What exactly is BRRRR? BRRRR stands for buy, repair, rent, refinance, and repeat. The main purpose of BRRRR is to get into properties using little to no money out of your pocket. Those who use this strategy correctly will be able to accumulate “value at” properties quickly and create a portfolio. Just to clarify, “value at” properties are those that are under market value and need work done. These are often hoarder houses, in need of yard cleanup, and ones that need maintenance or repairs. Whether the current owners were unable or unwilling to fix up the property, it creates the perfect opportunity for investors. By taking the time to fix up the properties, you will in turn create net worth for the property.

Two loans, one goal!

With BRRRR you need one loan for the purchase and repair, plus a long term loan for the refinance. The short term loans are often a hard money loan or a private loan ranging from 10% to 12% interest rates. It is important to keep in mind that these loans are only temporary, lasting 6 to 12 months. After that time, the loan balloons. That is why it is so important to have a long term loan option available when using the BRRRR strategy. Unfortunately,  many people do not do the research up front or run through the numbers before making the purchase. Don’t wait until the refinance! Take a look ahead to make sure that the property you want to buy will be able to cash flow later on. 

Look ahead to ensure success.

One of the most important pieces of the BRRRR strategy is refinance. A refinance is needed so that you can carry the loan long term. While buying the right property is important, it is crucial that you look ahead in preparation for the refinance. Oftentimes investors get to the refinance and either can’t get a loan or they can’t get enough money to cover their costs. In either case, it would defeat the purpose of using the BRRRR strategy. By doing the research up front and making sure that the whole thing works, you will actually make money. A lot of people don’t take the time to work through the numbers. Instead they discover during the refinance closing that they are going to lose money.

What is a DSCR loan and how can it work with BRRRR?

A DSCR loan is based solely on the property and your credit score. If the property’s income or rents are not very high, then you’re not going to get that big of a loan. The lenders will decrease the LTV until the break even point or sometimes higher. In the end, the lenders need the income and the expenses to be the same. This is referred to as the DSCR ratio. Just to clarify, expenses include the monthly payments, taxes, insurance, HOA, and flood insurance. One thing to keep in mind is that the LTV is different for each person and for each property. In the end you need to determine if your expenses equal your income prior to purchasing the property. 

For example:

An investor is using a DSCR and buys something where the purchase, rehab, and everything puts them at 80%. However, the property itself only qualifies for 70% because of its break even point. While many think that they are good because they bought it and are into it for 75% to 80%, this is not always true. When it comes to refinancing the property, lenders can only do 70% to 75%. It is confusing and often daunting because there are so many moving parts. However, by laying it out and making sure that the property cash flows, you will be successful.

We are here to help!

Here at The Cash Flow Company, we are happy to run through the numbers with you to make sure that you are setting yourself up for success. That would include checking your rents, taxes, insurance, and LTV to make sure that you would qualify for a long term loan when you go to refinance. Don’t chance being surprised at the refinance closing! Take the time now to run through the numbers and ensure your success for the future! 

Contact us today to see if a DSCR loan and the BRRRR strategy are right for you!

Watch our most recent video DSCR Loans and BRRRR Properties – Fundamentals Explained to learn more!

by

Interest-Only vs Amortization Loan: Calculating Mortgage Payment

In today’s market it is important to find a loan not only flexible, but one that also helps you to create cash flow. Today we are going to compare interest-only loan vs amortization loan by using an example. This will paint a picture of how these two types of loans differ. Which is best for you? Let’s dive in and see!

What is the biggest difference between interest-only and amortization?

Interest only loan products are loans where you are only paying on the interest that is owed on the loan. The principal on these types of loans never goes down unless you decide to put a  little money towards it. An amortized loan on the other hand requires you to pay not only the interest, but a little bit towards the principal as well. In this market, the rates are a little bit higher than they have been in years past. While an amortized loan typically has lower rates, it will also have the principal added to the monthly payment.

Example:

Loan amount: $200K

Rent: $1,700

DSCR ratio 1.1 

Loan Type Rate $200,000 x rate = annual interest Annual interest ÷ 12 = monthly payment Payment amount to mortgage company Taxes, Insurance, HOA, and Flood = $150.00

Creating Grand total for the month

Interest Only 8.25% $16,500 $1,375 $1,375 $1,525
Amortized 8% $16,000 $1,333 $1,333 Interest + principle = $1,468 $1,618

One more step. Adding the DSCR ratio.

What you will normally find is that the interest only rates in this market will be a little higher than the amortized loan rate. However, we still have one more step before we can determine if you can qualify for the DSCR loan on this property. We will need to multiply the grand total for the month by the DSCR ratio. This will help us to determine if the property will qualify for a DSCR loan based on the current rent amount of $1,700. Just as a reminder, the rents are based on what is happening in the market and the assessments done by an appraiser.

DSCR ratio 1.1 Grand total for the month  Grand total for the month x 1.1 = Difference after adding the  DSCR ratio compared to the $1,700 rent
Interest only  $1,525 $1,677.50 Will qualify for DSCR
Amortized  $1,618 $1,779.80 Will not qualify for DSCR

If you have any questions or want to run though the DSCR numbers, contact us today. We can help you compare a DSCR loan to an amortized loan. This will help you determine which is a better fit for your needs. 

Watch our most recent video to Discover Your Best Option: DSCR Loan – Interest Only vs Amortized.

by

DSCR Loans: What Does Interest-Only Mean?

DSCR loans are excellent for real estate investors who are working with rental properties. In today’s unpredictable market, one of the best options for investors is an interest-only DSCR loan. This will provide more flexibility, greater cash flow, and the ability to purchase more properties. So what exactly does interest-only mean and is it right for you? Let’s take a closer look.

What is interest only DSCR?

Interest only loan products are loans where you are only paying on the interest that is owed on the loan. The principal on these types of loans never goes down unless you decide to put a  little money towards it. One thing to keep in mind with DSCR loans is that there are prepayment restrictions for the first 3 to 5 years. In most cases this means that you have a 20% cap during this prepay period. Paying a little extra doesn’t normally create an issue. It is just something that you need to keep in mind when working with an interest only loan.  

Example:

Loan amount: $200K

Rent: $1,700

DSCR ratio 1.1 

Loan Type Rate $200,000 x rate = annual interest Annual interest ÷ 12 = monthly payment Payment amount to mortgage company  Add the Taxes, Insurance, HOA, and Flood = $150.00 

This creates the Grand total for the month

Interest Only 8.25% $16,500 $1,375 $1,375 $1,525

One more step. Adding the DSCR ratio.

What you will normally find is that the interest only rates in this market will be a little higher than the amortized loan rate. However, we still have one more step before we can determine if you can qualify for the DSCR loan on this property. We will need to multiply the grand total for the month by the DSCR ratio. This will help us to determine if the property will qualify for a DSCR loan based on the current rent amount of $1,700. Just as a reminder, the rents are based on what is happening in the market and the assessments done by an appraiser.

DSCR ratio 1.1 Grand total for the month Grand total for the month x 1.1 = Difference after adding the  DSCR ratio and the $1,700 rent
Interest only $1,525 $1,677.50 Will qualify for DSCR

With DSCR loans you will have the flexibility of a 5, 7, or 10 year period. A DSCR interest only loan also provides an excellent opportunity for you to cash flow on the property. 

If you have any questions or want to run though the DSCR numbers, contact us today. We can help you compare a DSCR loan to an amortized loan. This will help you determine which is a better fit for your needs. 

Watch our most recent video to Discover Your Best Option: DSCR Loan – Interest Only vs Amortized.

by

DSCR Loan vs Traditional Loan – What’s BEST For You?

There are a variety of loans available to investors. Some of these include a traditional 30 year fixed, hybrid 40 year fixed, 5 year interest only, 10 year interest only and even adjustable. Depending on your cash flow and what you are needing, you can create the flexibility you need to succeed. Today we are going to discuss DSCR vs traditional loan. What’s best for you? Let’s take a look!

What is a prepay penalty?

When applying for a DSCR loan vs a traditional loan you need to take into consideration that a DSCR has prepay penalties.These are standard 3 or 5 year prepay penalty that will be charged if you refinance, sell, or pay the loan off in full before the 3 or 5 year mark. This is normally a 3, 2, 1 structure. Just to clarify, 3% would be charged if the loan is paid within the first year, 2% the second year, and 1% the third year. Traditional loans however do not have a prepay penalty. Instead investors can come and go as they please. Before considering a DSCR loan, take into consideration the duration that you will need the loan for. It could potentially cost you a significant amount to get out of the loan if you decide to pay it off early.

Understanding rates for a DSCR vs a traditional loan.

When we are looking at a traditional loan vs a DSCR loan the rates will vary. A DSCR loan could be up to a half point higher than a traditional loan. A DSCR loan typically has a higher interest rate. This is because the lender does not verify your income when you apply. Instead they calculate whether or not the property will cash flow. A traditional loan on the other hand does verify your income over a two year period. This provides them the security they need to offer a lower rate. Income verification is difficult for many real estate investors because they write as much off as possible on their taxes. A DSCR can help these investors to get a good loan as long as they have good credit.

Would you like to learn more about DSCR loans? Contact us today to see if a DSCR loan is the best for you! 

Watch our most recent video to find out more about DSCR Loan vs Traditional Loan – What’s BEST For You?

by

Discover Your Best Option: DSCR Loan – Interest Only vs Amortized

Today we are going to discuss DSCR interest only products and compare them to an amortized loan. Our goal is to not only look at the flexibility of an interest only loan, but to also demonstrate how it will help with cash flow. Which is best for you? Let’s start by comparing an interest only loan vs an amortized loan. 

What is interest only DSCR?

Interest only loan products are loans where you are only paying on the interest that is owed on the loan. However, principal on these types of loans never goes down unless you decide to put a  little money towards it. One thing to keep in mind with DSCR loans is that there are prepayment restrictions for the first 3 to 5 years. In most cases this means that you have a 20% cap during this prepay period. Paying a little extra doesn’t normally create an issue. It is just something that you need to keep in mind when working with an interest only loan.  

What is an amortized loan?

An amortized loan on the other hand requires you to pay not only the interest, but a little bit towards the principal as well. In this market, the rates are a little bit higher than they have been in years past. While an amortized loan typically has lower rates, it is important to keep in mind that the principal payment will be added to the monthly payment. In many cases the monthly payment for the amortized loan will end up being greater than the interest only loan. This difference can affect your ability to qualify for the loan because the property will not be a cash flowing investment. 

Example:

Loan amount: $200K

Rent: $1,700

DSCR ratio 1.1 

Loan Type Rate $200,000 x rate = annual interest Annual interest ÷ 12 = monthly payment Payment amount to mortgage company  Taxes, Insurance, HOA, and Flood = $150.00 

Creating Grand total for the month

Interest Only 8.25% $16,500 $1,375 $1,375 $1,525
Amortized 8% $16,000 $1,333 $1,333 Interest + principle = $1,468 $1,618

One more step. Adding the DSCR ratio.

What you will normally find is that the interest only rates in this market will be a little higher than the amortized loan rate. However, we still have one more step before we can determine if you can qualify for the DSCR loan on this property. We will need to multiply the grand total for the month by the DSCR ratio. This will help us to determine if the property will qualify for a DSCR loan based on the current rent amount of $1,700. Just as a reminder, the rents are based on what is happening in the market and the assessments done by an appraiser.

DSCR ratio 1.1 Grand total for the month  Grand total for the month x 1.1 = Difference after adding the  DSCR ratio compared to the $1,700 rent
Interest only  $1,525 $1,677.50 Will qualify for DSCR
Amortized  $1,618 $1,779.80 Will not qualify for DSCR

With DSCR loans you will have the flexibility of a 5, 7, or 10 year period. A DSCR interest only loan also provides an excellent opportunity for you to cash flow on the property. 

If you have any questions or want to run though the DSCR numbers, contact us today. We can help you compare a DSCR loan to an amortized loan. This will help you determine which is a better fit for your needs. 

Watch our most recent video to Discover Your Best Option: DSCR Loan – Interest Only vs Amortized.

by

The Benefits of a DSCR Loan

Categories:

The Benefits of a DSCR Loan

Are you looking for a loan that is easy to qualify for with good rates and a 30 year fixed term? Then we have your solution. We call it the Easy Rental Loan, but other lenders in the industry call it a DSCR loan. A DSCR is also known as a debt service coverage ratio loan, measures your ability to cash flow in order to pay your monthly costs. Before looking at the benefits of a DSCR loan, there are two key items that you need to take into consideration. Let’s take a look.

Two key items for the Easy Rental Loan are:

  1. A decent credit score
  2. A lease that covers the monthly cost of your property

The Monthly costs include

  1. Mortgage payment
  2. Property taxes
  3. Insurance
  4. HOA fee

Benefits of a DSCR Loan:

If your property positively cash flows, meaning that you make more than you spend on the property, then you can qualify for an easy rental loan. Better yet, you can still qualify for affordable, long term fixed rates with a 30 year fixed term. 

What makes the Easy Rental Loan Easy:

You don’t have to worry about submitting tax returns, being in business for two or more years, or having too many financed properties. It really doesn’t get easier than that

Contact us today!

So if you’re looking for a fast, efficient, and easy solution to fund your rental properties, then look no further. We have the easy rental loan waiting for you.

Ready to chat? Great! Our team here at The Cash Flow Company is here to help. We are eager to set you on a path that helps you make the kind of money you need to live the life you want.

Watch our most recent clip to find out more about the Easy Rental Loan.

by